Journal Article 1 Mention
Developmental outcomes in 4-year-old children born in the first COVID-19 lockdown in England: preliminary findings from the Born In COVID Year – Core Lockdown Effects (BICYCLE) study
Nicola Botting2026
Chelo Del RosarioJane Flynn
Top 23% · 77th Percentile
0 citations · Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health
Open AccessBorn in Covid Year - Core Lockdown Effects (BICYCLE)

TLDR

Four-year-old children born during England's first COVID-19 lockdown showed some strengths in language but had more trouble with skills like self-control and planning, which may mean they need extra help at school.

Summary

1 Study Aim

The study set out to find out how being born during the first COVID-19 lockdown in England affected the development of four-year-old children. The researchers wanted to see if limited social contact during this time changed children's language, thinking, and movement skills compared to children born before the pandemic. Children born during the first COVID-19 lockdown were studied to see if their development was different from kids born before the pandemic.

2 Study Design

This research used an observational cross-sectional design, meaning it looked at a group of children at one point in time. The study included 205 children who were born during the first COVID-19 lockdown in England. The researchers used standard tests to measure language skills, executive function (the ability to plan and control behavior), motor skills (movement and coordination), and non-verbal reasoning (problem-solving without words). They compared the children's scores to published norms from before the pandemic and also checked how each child's abilities matched up with their own non-verbal reasoning skills. Researchers tested 205 four-year-olds born in lockdown, comparing their skills to typical scores from before the pandemic and to their own thinking abilities.

3 Findings

The study reveals that children born during the lockdown scored higher than expected in some language areas, like sentence structure and vocabulary, as well as in non-verbal reasoning. However, caregivers reported that these children had more difficulties with executive function, such as self-control and flexible thinking, compared to pre-pandemic norms. When the researchers compared each child's skills to their own non-verbal reasoning, they found that expressive language, executive function, and motor skills were lower than what would be expected based on their thinking abilities. The authors argue that these differences could make it harder for these children to succeed in school and may mean they need extra support. The research demonstrates the importance of monitoring and supporting children born during the pandemic as they start school. Children born in lockdown did well in some language and thinking tests but had more trouble with self-control and movement, which could make school harder for them.

Abstract

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: Children born during England's COVID-19 lockdowns experienced markedly limited social exposure during a crucial developmental window. Given the importance of early interactions in shaping language, executive function and motor skills, this observational cross-sectional study examined developmental outcomes at age 4. METHODS: 205 children born in lockdown were assessed using standardised measures with published prepandemic norms: expressive vocabulary, expressive language and receptive language (Expressive Vocabulary, Word Structure and Sentence Structure subtests of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals Preschool-second UK edition); receptive vocabulary (British Picture Vocabulary Scale, third edition); executive function (Global Executive Composite (GEC) and Emergent Metacognition Index (EMI) subscales of the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool); motor skills (Motor Skills subscale from the Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scales) and non-verbal reasoning (Matrices subtest from the British Ability Scales-3). Analyses (n=189-205) compared scores against prepandemic normative expectations and a within-sample benchmark of non-verbal reasoning to assess strengths and weaknesses against general cognitive development. RESULTS: Compared with normative expectations, Sentence Structure (d=0.59), Expressive Vocabulary (d=0.24), receptive vocabulary (d=0.47) and Matrices (d=0.42) were significantly higher than expected for age. Caregiver-reported executive function was notably lower (GEC, d=-0.46; EMI, d=-0.36), while Word Structure (d=0.01) and Motor Skills (d=0.09) showed no differences. Benchmarked against non-verbal reasoning, Word Structure (d=-0.35), Expressive Vocabulary (d=-0.22), executive function (GEC, d=-0.72; EMI, d=-0.63) and Motor Skills (d=-0.33) were lower than cognitive potential. Sentence Structure (d=0.08) and receptive vocabulary (d=-0.01) were consistent with non-verbal reasoning. CONCLUSIONS: Caregiver-reported executive function was the most noteworthy area of concern for children born in lockdown. Expressive language and motor skills were lower than a benchmark of non-verbal reasoning, suggesting some impacts in relation to cognitive potential. This may lead to educational vulnerabilities and additional support needs in classrooms. Overall, these findings offer valuable early insight into postpandemic developmental impacts and underscore the urgent need for responsive educational policy and targeted support for those now in schooling.

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